Index
It consists of structures on either side of the third ventricle and includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus, and subthalamus.
The diencephalon is one of the central cysts in the brain that forms during embryogenesis. During the third week of development, a neural tube is created from the ectoderm, one of the three primary germ layers.
The tube forms three central vesicles during the third week of development: the forebrain, midbrain, and rhombencephalon. The prosencephalon gradually divides into the telencephalon and the diencephalon. The diencephalon is made up of the following structures:
Thalamus
The thalamus (from the Greek θάλαμος, “chamber”) is the large mass of gray matter in the dorsal part of the diencephalon of the brain with various functions such as the transmission of sensory signals, including motor signals, to the cerebral cortex, and the regulation of consciousness, sleep, and alertness.
It is an asymmetrical midline structure of two halves within the vertebrate brain, located between the cerebral cortex and the midbrain. It is the main product of the embryonic diencephalon, as first assigned by Wilhelm His, Sr. in 1893.
The thalamus is located in the forebrain, which is superior to the midbrain, near the brain’s center, with nerve fibers projecting into the cerebral cortex.
The medial surface of the thalamus constitutes the upper part of the lateral wall of the third ventricle. It is connected to the corresponding character of the opposite thalamus by a flattened gray band, the interthalamic adhesion.
The thalamus has multiple functions; it is generally believed to act as a relay station or hub, transmitting information between different subcortical areas and the cerebral cortex.
In particular, each sensory system (except the olfactory system) includes a thalamic nucleus that receives sensory signals and sends them to the associated primary cortical area.
For the visual system, for example, inputs from the retina are sent to the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus, which in turn projects to the visual cortex in the occipital lobe.
The thalamus is believed to process sensory information and transmit it: each of the primary areas of the sensory relay receives strong feedback connections from the cerebral cortex.
Similarly, the medial geniculate nucleus acts as a critical auditory relay between the lower colliculus of the midbrain and the primary auditory cortex.
The ventral posterior nucleus is a critical somatosensory relay, sending tactile and proprioceptive information to the primary somatosensory cortex.
Thalamic nuclei have strong reciprocal connections with the cerebral cortex, forming thalamic-corticothalamic circuits that are believed to be involved with consciousness. Damage to the thalamus can lead to a permanent coma.
The role of the thalamus in the most anterior pale and nigral territories in alterations of the basal ganglia system is recognized but not well understood.
The contribution of the thalamus to vestibular or tectal functions is almost ignored. The thalamus has been thought of as a “relay” that sends signals to the cerebral cortex.
More recent research suggests that thalamic function is more selective. Many different parts are tied to various regions of the thalamus.
This is the case for many sensory systems (except the olfactory), such as the auditory, somatic, visceral, taste, and visual systems, where localized lesions cause-specific sensory deficits.
An essential role of the thalamus is in supporting motor and language systems, and many of the circuits involved in these systems are shared.
The thalamus is connected to the hippocampus as part of the extended hippocampal system in the anterior thalamic nuclei. They are crucial for human episodic memory and rodent event memory concerning spatial memory and spatial sensory data.
There is support for the hypothesis that the connection of the thalamic regions to particular parts of the mesiotemporal lobe provides differentiation of the functioning of memory of recall and familiarity.
The neural information processes necessary for motor control were proposed as a network involving the thalamus as a subcortical motor center.
Through investigations of primate brain anatomy, the interconnected issues of the cerebellum to the multiple motor cortices suggested that the thalamus plays a crucial role in providing the specific channels from the basal ganglia and cerebellum to the motor areas. Cortical.
In an investigation of the saccadic and antisaccades motor response in three monkeys, it was found that the thalamic regions were involved in the generation of antisaccades eye movement (that is, the ability to inhibit the reflexive shaking movement of the eyes in the direction of a presented stimulus).
Recent research suggests that the mediodorsal thalamus may play a broader role in cognition. Specifically, the mediodorsal thalamus can:
‘Amplify the connectivity (signal strength) of only the circuits in the cortex appropriate to the current context and thus contribute to the flexibility (of the mammalian brain) to make complex decisions by wiring the many associations on which they depend. In weakly connected cortical circuits.’
The researchers found that “enhancing DM activity increased the mice’s ability to ‘think,’ reducing their error rate by more than 25 percent when deciding which contradictory sensory stimuli to follow to find the reward.”
Hypothalamus, including posterior pituitary / posterior pituitary
hypothalamus
The hypothalamus (from the Greek ὑπό, “under” and θάλαμος, thalamus) is a portion of the brain that contains a series of small nuclei with a variety of functions.
The hypothalamus is located below the thalamus and is part of the limbic system. In neuroanatomy terminology, it forms the ventral aspect of the diencephalon.
It synthesizes and secretes certain neurohormones, called releasing hormones or hypothalamic hormones, and these, in turn, stimulate or inhibit the secretion of pituitary hormones.
In mammals, the magnocellular neurosecretory cells of the paraventricular nucleus and the supraoptic nucleus of the hypothalamus produce neurohypophyseal hormones, oxytocin, and vasopressin.
These hormones are released into the blood in the posterior pituitary. Much smaller parvocellular neurosecretory cells, neurons in the paraventricular nucleus, release corticotropin-releasing hormone and other hormones into the pituitary portal system, where these hormones diffuse to the anterior pituitary.
Posterior pituitary / posterior pituitary
The posterior pituitary is not glandular like the anterior pituitary. The posterior pituitary is the neural tissue and consists solely of the distal axons of the hypothalamic magnocellular neurons that make up the neurohypophysis.
The perikarya ( cell bodies ) of these axons are located in paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei of the hypothalamus.
During embryogenesis, the neuroepithelial cells of the lining of the third ventricle mature into magnocellular neurons as they migrate laterally to and above the optic chiasm to form the supraoptic nuclei and to the walls of the third ventricle to form the paraventricular nuclei.
In the posterior pituitary, the axon terminals of magnocellular neurons contain neurosecretory granules, membrane-bound bundles of hormones stored for later release.
The blood supply for the anterior pituitary gland is through the hypothalamic/pituitary portal system. Still, the posterior pituitary gland is supplied directly from the inferior pituitary arteries, branches of the posterior and internal communicating arteries of the carotid.
Drainage is done in the cavernous sinus and the internal jugular vein. The posterior pituitary hormones, oxytocin, and vasopressin are synthesized for the most part in hormone-specific magnocellular neurons, although a small number of neurons (approximately 3%) express both peptides.
The supraoptic nucleus is relatively simple, with 80% to 90% of neurons producing vasopressin3 and all axons projecting towards the posterior pituitary. However, the organization of the paraventricular hearts is much more complex and varies between species.
There are five sub-nuclei and parvocellular divisions (smaller cells) that synthesize other peptides in humans, such as corticotropin-releasing hormone, thyrotropin-releasing hormone, and somatostatin and opiates.
Parvocellular neurons project to the median eminence, brain stem, and spinal cord, where they play a role in various autonomic and neuroendocrine functions.
The suprachiasmatic nucleus, which lies in the basal midline and anterior to the third ventricle, also synthesizes vasopressin and controls circadian and seasonal rhythms.
The primary stimulating neurotransmitter in the neurohypophysis is glutamate with stimulating noradrenergic inputs that act by glutamate stimulation. Glutamate receptors represent 25% of synapses in magnocellular neurons.
The primary inhibitory input is γ-aminobutyric acid, representing between 20% and 40% of the synaptic input to magnocellular neurons.
Phasic activation of vasopressin neurons is the most efficient activity pattern for vasopressin release from axon terminals.
Phasic activity is controlled by glutamate stimulation and opiate inhibition.
Dynorphin is synthesized in vasopressin neurons and is co-released with vasopressin from dendrites at the physical level. It acts autocrine to inhibit the activity of vasopressin neurons, contributing to the phasic firing pattern.
One of the most remarkable aspects of the magnocellular system is the plasticity of the system in response to prolonged stimulation. This plasticity is of most significant importance in humans during labor and lactation.
Epitalamo
The epithalamus comprises the thalamus, the hypothalamus, and the pituitary gland. It is found in the dorsal aspect of the diencephalon. It also includes the habenula, the pineal gland, and the stria medullaris.
The thalamus and hypothalamus have been described previously. The following tables highlight these different structures, their components, and the functions of each area.
The epithalamus is involved in many functions, including motor control, the sleep-wake cycle, and responses to stress.
The habenula is highly conserved in vertebrates and acts as a critical node connecting the forearm brain with the midbrain and the hindbrain, receiving input from the limbic system and basal ganglia and projecting to the monoaminergic nuclei.
The pineal gland is critical for regulating circadian rhythms due to its melatonin production, and the choroid plexus synthesizes cerebrospinal fluid and many growth factors.
Including fibroblasts and insulin-like and platelet-derived growth factors, it performs essential functions, such as providing a pathway for nutrients and removing by-products of metabolism.
Epithalamus dysfunction has been related to mood disorders such as major depression, schizophrenia, and sleep disorders. However, knowledge regarding the epithalamus development process is limited.
During early development, the parent domain in the diencephalon divides into three prosumers (p), i.e., p1, p2, and p3, along the anterior-posterior axis. P1 and p3 give rise to the pretectum and prethalamus, respectively.
The most dorsal region of p2 produces the epithalamus, and the other part generates the thalamus. The roof plate’s most anterior area becomes the third ventricular choroid plexus in the presumed epithelial progenitor domain. At the same time, the adjacent part generates the habenular commissure, paired habenules, and the pineal gland.
Previously, a fibroblast growth factor family member, fibroblast growth factor, has been reported to regulate habenula and pineal gland development in a dose-dependent manner.
In zebrafish, fibroblast growth factor signaling also controls the specification of the pineal complex. However, the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying the development of the epithalamus remain largely unknown.
Foxg1 encodes a winged-helix transcriptional repressor and has been reported to play a critical role during telencephalic development. Patients with Foxg1 mutations have suffered from mental retardation, poor social interactions, and severe anxiety.
In particular, severe sleep disturbances, third ventricular deformation, and choroid plexus cysts have also been reported. Therefore, Foxg1 may also be involved in the regulation of capital development.
Habenular nuclei
Conserved throughout vertebrates, habenular nuclei are a pair of small symmetrical structures in the epithalamus.
The nuclei connect the forebrain and midbrain by transmitting information and projecting it to various brain regions. Each habenular core comprises two larger asymmetric subnuclei, the medial habenula, and the lateral habenula.
These sub-nuclei are associated with different physiological processes and disorders, such as depression, nicotine addiction, and encoding of expected aversive stimuli or omission of rewarding stimuli. Clarifying the functions of habenular nuclei at the molecular level requires knowledge of their neuropeptide complement.
Although it was predominantly studied for its demonstration of asymmetric brain development and function, in recent years, many scientists have begun to examine the role of habenular nuclei in motivation and behavior in understanding the physiology of addiction.
The medial habenula receives connections from the posterior septum pellucidum and Broca’s diagonal band; the lateral habenula receives afferents from the lateral hypothalamus, nucleus accumbens, internal globus pallidus, ventral pallidum, and Broca’s diagonal band.
Thalamus medullary stria
The medullary stria is part of the epithalamus. It is a bundle of fibers that contains afferent fibers from the septal nuclei, the lateral preoptic-hypothalamic region, and the thalamic nuclei anterior to the habenula.
It forms a horizontal ridge on the medial surface of the thalamus and lies on the border between the dorsal and medial surfaces of the thalamus. Superior and lateral trigone to habenular.
It projects the habenular nuclei, from the perforated anterior substance and hypothalamus to the habenular trigone, the habenular commissure, and the habenular core.
Posterior commissure
The posterior commissure (also known as the epithelial commissure) is a rounded band of white fibers that traverse the midline on the dorsal aspect of the upper end of the cerebral aqueduct. It is essential in bilateral pupillary light reflex.
Its fibers acquire their spinal sheaths early, but their connections have not been definitively determined.
Most of them have their origin in a nucleus, the nucleus of the posterior commissure (the core of Darkschewitsch), located in the central gray matter of the upper end of the cerebral aqueduct in front of the oculomotor nucleus.
Some are probably derived from the posterior part of the thalamus and superior colliculus, while others are believed to continue down into the medial longitudinal fascicle. The posterior commissure interconnects the pretectal nuclei, mediating the consensual reflection of the pupillary light.
Pineal gland
The most important exception is a primitive vertebrate, the Myxini. Even in the Myxini, however, there may be a “pineal equivalent” structure in the dorsal diencephalon.
The lamprey (another primitive vertebrate), however, does possess one. Some more developed vertebrates lost pineal glands in the course of their evolution. René Descartes believed that the pineal gland was the “main seat of the soul.”
Unlike most mammalian brains, the pineal gland is not isolated from the body by the blood-brain barrier system; it has a profuse blood flow, surpassed only by the kidney, supplied by the choroid branches of the posterior cerebral artery.
Parasympathetic innervation of the pterygopalatine and otic ganglia is also present. In addition, some nerve fibers enter the pineal gland through the pineal stem (central innervation).
In addition, neurons in the trigeminal ganglion innervate the gland with nerve fibers that contain the neuropeptide pituitary adenylate cycle activator polypeptide (also known as PACAP).
The pineal body consists of human beings of lobular parenchyma of pine nuts surrounded by connective tissue spaces. A pial capsule covers the surface of the gland.
The pineal gland consists mainly of pinealocytes, but four other types of cells have been identified. Since it is pretty cellular (relative to the cortex and white matter), it can be mistaken for a neoplasm.
In some parts of the brain, and particularly in the pineal gland, there are calcium structures, the number of which increases with age, called corpus arenacea (or “acervuli” or “cerebral sand”).
The human pineal gland grows in size until approximately 1-2 years of age, remaining stable, although its weight gradually increases after puberty.
High melatonin levels in boys are believed to inhibit sexual development, and pineal tumors have been linked to precocious puberty. When puberty hits, the production of melatonin is reduced.
The pineal gland does not extend on either side of the midline in zebrafish but instead shows a skew to the left. In humans, the functional brain domain is accompanied by subtle anatomical asymmetry.
Melatonin has several functions in the central nervous system, the most important of which is to help modulate sleep patterns.
Light-sensitive nerve cells in the retina detect light and send this signal to the suprachiasmatic nucleus, synchronizing the suprachiasmatic core with the day-night cycle.
Nerve fibers then transmit daylight information from the suprachiasmatic nucleus to the paraventricular hearts (PVN), then to the spinal cord and through the sympathetic system to the upper cervical ganglia, and from there to the pineal gland.
The compound pangolin is also claimed to be produced in the pineal gland; it is one of the beta-carbolines. This claim is subject to some controversy.
Rodent studies suggest that the pineal gland influences the secretion of the pituitary gland’s sex hormones, follicle-stimulating hormone, and luteinizing hormone.
Pinealectomy performed in rodents did not produce changes in pituitary weight but did cause an increase in the concentration of follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone within the gland.
Melatonin administration did not return follicle-stimulating hormone concentrations to normal levels, suggesting that the pineal gland influences the pituitary gland’s secretion of follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone through a non-transmission molecule. Described.
The pineal gland contains receptors for the regulatory neuropeptide, endothelin-1, which, when injected in picomolar amounts into the lateral cerebral ventricle, causes a calcium-mediated increase in pineal glucose metabolism.
Studies in rodents suggest that the pineal gland may influence the actions of recreational drugs, such as cocaine, and antidepressants, such as fluoxetine (Prozac), and that it’s hormone melatonin may protect against neurodegeneration.
Studies in mice suggest that pineal-derived melatonin regulates new bone deposition. Pine-derived melatonin mediates its action on bone cells through MT2 receptors.
This pathway could be a potential new target for the treatment of osteoporosis, as the study shows the curative effect of oral melatonin treatment in a mouse model for postmenopausal osteoporosis.
Subtalamo
The subthalamus or prethalamus is a part of the diencephalon. The subthalamus connects with the globus pallidus, a basal nucleus of the telencephalon.
The subthalamus is located ventral to the thalamus, medial to the internal capsule, and lateral to the hypothalamus. It is a region formed by several gray matter nuclei and their associated white matter structures, namely:
The subthalamic nucleus, whose neurons contain glutamate and have excitatory effects on the globus pallus and the substantia nigra neurons.
The uncertain zone is located between the Forel H1 and H2 fields. It is continuous with the reticular thalamic nucleus and receives input from the precentral cortex.
The subthalamus or prethalamus is separated from the thalamus by the intrathalamic zona Limits.
Postnatally, the subthalamus lies below the thalamus, hence the ‘sub’ (meaning below) ‘thalamus.’ It is also dorsolateral to the hypothalamus.
Appendices
The optic nerve (CNII) joins the diencephalon. The optic nerve is a sensory (afferent) nerve responsible for vision; it runs from the eye through the optic canal in the skull and joins the diencephalon. The retina is derived from the optic cup, a part of the embryonic diencephalon.
Function
The diencephalon is the region of the embryonic vertebrate neural tube that gives rise to the anterior structures of the brain, including the thalamus, the hypothalamus, and the posterior portion of the pituitary and the pineal gland.
